This paper proposes a new model of matter that reduces the structure of the Universe to two types of elementary energy particles, both massless. The model differs from current standard theories, discards the concept of space-time, and reinterprets gravity as a compressive force, but does not rely solely on it. The goal is to build a coherent worldview that is simpler, more deterministic, and can answer some of the open questions of current cosmology and the structure of matter.
1. Two types of elementary energy particles. Matter is based on two types of energy particles, both of which have mirror pairs, and thus the four particles can be paired with each other.
2. Photon as a composite particle. The photon is made up of two mirror gravitons and two mirror elementary electric charges (neutrinos).(1)
3. The torus structure of baryonic (normal) matter. The electron and the proton have a torus structure. The neutron too.
4. Gravity is a compressive force. Gravity is not attractive, but a directed compressive effect caused by graviton pairs.
5. Identification of graviton and spinon. The graviton has already been observed in holon-spinon experiments. The spinon is the carrier of the spin property, identical to the graviton particle.(2)
6. Neutrinos as elementary electric charge pairs. Neutrinos are paired forms of positive and negative elementary electric particles. They are not quasi-particles, but real building blocks.
7. Quarks do not exist. Neither do gluons.
8. Spacetime does not exist in nature. This concept is purely a mathematical formalism. Singularity too.
9. The speed of light is not constant. It has been measured exclusively in the horizontal direction.
10. Cyclic Universe, infinite gravitational radiation.
The model assumes cyclical universes with no real beginning or end. Gravitational pressure continuously gathers matter into a central neutron star (the "master black hole"), and then, when critical pressure is reached, it triggers a new Big Bang. This starts the next cycle.
The process of the cycle:
• Due to gravitational radiation, matter is continuously squeezed into a Master black hole formed somewhere in the Universe by the merger of galaxy clusters, and the process accelerates.
• The gravitational pressure force is not infinite, but has an upper limit, which can be derived from Newton's gravitational equation (= 1.2 × 1044 N).(3) This horrible pressure force is probably not fully exerted even on the surface of a giant neutron star sitting in a master black hole, and the internal, central pressure does not go to infinity.
• When the entire available amount of matter in the Universe suddenly enters the master black hole, the gravitational radiation that continues to be absorbed 'pumps up' the neutron star so to speak, and the system becomes unstable, as the material supply that was still able to bind the absorbed radiation has ceased, and then the matter is scattered with a gravitational pulse - this is the beginning of a new cycle.
• The explosion does not require the concept of spacetime, but can be interpreted as a scattering of neutrons and elementary particles, where the driving force is also graviton radiation. The initial velocity is the speed of graviton radiation, which can be approximately 1 Mc. This estimated speed also means that gravitational radiation is replaced approximately every ten thousand years in the Universe. The model does not assume inflation or spacetime bloat; the expansion is caused by the gravitational impulse.
• In each cycle, the structure of matter and energy is reformed, but it is not created from nothing. Spacetime has no structure, because there is no spacetime.
This cyclical model avoids the problems of singularities and "creation from nothing". Each new universe rearranges the energies and particle pairs of the previous cycle.
The starting point is not a singularity, but a neutron star under enormous gravitational pressure. Matter and radiation are not created from nothing, but from the rearrangement of elementary particles, as well as from the graviton radiation and neutrinos coming from infinity, which are necessary for the construction of the photon.
During the Big Bang, the material of the giant neutron star gathered in the Master black hole can break into smaller and larger clumps of neutrons, while high-energy neutron radiation is also produced. This system, freed from the pressure of gravitational radiation, quickly tries to stabilize. The clumps turn into normal matter and electrons are released, and the free neutrons also decay into protons and electrons within a short time. This process does not take 300,000 years, but rather the time required can be measured in minutes. This series of events may bring us closer to explaining the existence of the 'mature' galaxies observed by the Webb telescope in the early times.
According to the model, matter-antimatter pairs are stable paired particles with a torus structure formed at two well-defined frequencies of the photon. The fundamental antimatter pair is ultimately the two types of elementary charge, which are the two components of the neutrino.
More detailed structure:
• During the splitting of the photon - if the frequency is appropriate - two particles in a torus orbit can be formed: electron-positron or proton-antiproton pairs (= pair formation).
• The particles produced by the splitting of a photon can only orbit circularly at two specific frequencies; in other cases, the resulting particles spiral apart and quickly disappear, which is also consistent with cloud chamber observations.
• The fundamental difference between particles and antiparticles is the elementary electric charge particle orbiting around the graviton backbone.
In the electron, the negatively charged particle orbits, while in the positron, the positively charged particle orbits, but their structure - the graviton backbone and the torus - is the same. In the torus, the direction of the orbit around the graviton influences the spin property.
The proton is a torus structure similar to the positron, but it is created from a higher photon frequency, so the diameter of the torus is smaller and its energy is higher.
The antiproton is the same as the electron, but as a higher energy version. So the positron and the proton are the same material composition, they cannot be each other's antiparticles. So what can antimatter actually be? Antimatter is the pair of positive and negative electrically charged particles, the components of the neutrino. They are each other's antimatter.
This model therefore reinterprets the concept of antimatter:
• the positron is the antiparticle of the electron,
• the proton is the antiparticle of the antiproton,
• but the proton and the electron are also each other's antiparticles, even though they cannot annihilate each other.
Since the positron and the proton are formed from the same half of the photon and although the photons differ significantly in frequency, they are identical in their material composition. Similarly, the electron and the antiproton are formed from the other half of the photon and thus they are also identical in their material composition. However, annihilation can only occur between pairs that originate from the same frequency, that is, between the positron and electron, or in the case of the proton and antiproton. Therefore, annihilation does not occur between the proton and the electron, since they originate from different frequencies and therefore photons cannot be formed from them. Consequently, positive and negative elementary electric charge units can be considered as true antimatter. Antimatter is here before our eyes; the discovery of antimatter galaxies is not expected. If there were such things, we would need to see flashes in the sky at very specific wavelengths.
The structure of photons and the origin of their properties(1)
The figure below illustrates the changes in the structure of a photon within a wavelength.
Figure 1. The photon model: two elementary energy particles, gravitons, moving in a double helix and two types of electric charge particles orbiting around them. This structure ensures the sinusoidal alternation of the outwardly directed properties of the photon, which means the change in the position of the 4 particles relative to each other. The two gravitons are designated A and B, the negative electric charge is designated C, and the positive elementary electric charge is designated D. If the gravitons enclose the positively charged electric particle, the photon outwardly displays a negative electric property. A quarter wavelength later, the 4 particles are in the shape of a square, the two electric charges (separated to the right in the picture) neutralize each other, the photon outwardly displays a magnetic property caused by the gravitons. A quarter wavelength later, the 4 particles are again arranged along a straight line, but the negatively charged particle is sandwiched and shielded, so the photon exhibits positive electrical properties. Finally, returning to the starting point shown in the image, the 4 particles again assume a rectangular shape, but the charges now fall on the left side, so the magnetic polarity also reverses.
The structure of the photon: two mirror gravitons and two mirror electric charges, which, orbiting around the gravitons moving in a helix orbit, form the composite, non-elementary particle nature of the photon. The photon does not behave like a wave and the photon is not a wave. Due to the alternation of the relative positions of the four particles that make up its structure, the photon exhibits an electric property outwardly, then a quarter wavelength later, a magnetic property. Circular polarization, spin and electro-magnetic behavior can all be derived from this internal structure. So the photon is not a wave but a particle and only its outwardly directed properties alternate sinusoidally.
Laser light is a 'crystalline' photon beam. Neighboring photons travel side by side, aligned with their electric charges and in contact with each other. Horizontal and vertical contacts alternate every quarter turn in a plane perpendicular to the direction of travel.
a
b
Figure 2a. Formation of the connection between laser photons with the vertical location of the electric charges.
Figure 2b. The bonds change to the horizontal direction a quarter wavelength later. These bonds stabilize the structure of the laser beam. In the lattice, the distance between opposite charges is always smaller than the distance between the same charges.
The constancy of the speed of light and its changes
The speed of light is not constant. The speed of propagation of a photon is only constant in the horizontal direction on Earth, because the gradient of graviton radiation determines the actual speed of light. The speed of light is, for example, 2c inward at the event horizon, and exactly zero outward.
Interpretation of the Pound and Rebka experiment
The Pound and Rebka experiment brilliantly demonstrated the increase in the speed of light with a height difference of 22.5 meters.(4) The researchers glued the Fe57 absorber isotope to a loudspeaker membrane. The membrane compensated for the increase in the speed of light by moving downward, and thus the absorption of gamma photons with speeds greater than c could be detected by the sensitive Mössbauer method. Without moving the loudspeaker membrane, gamma photons emitted 22.5 meters higher would no longer be absorbed by the Fe57 absorber.
Misunderstanding of the Michelson experiment
The Michelson experiment, by rotating an interferometer floating on the surface of mercury, could not detect the Earth's speed in space, but with this type of rotation of the interferometer was even not possible, since the light rays are exchanged during rotation and compensate for each other's effects. However, if the interferometer is not rotated, daily and annual cycles can be registered.(5)
However, if we rotate the Michelson interferometer in the forbidden direction, then the original intention, the Earth's speed in space, can probably be detected. Namely, if we choose the optical axis of one of the arms as the axis of rotation, then we would presumably get stripe shifts, except when the axis of rotation points exactly in the direction of the speed. So if there is no or hardly any movement in the stripes, then the axis of rotation shows the direction of the speed. People who are willing to experiment can try it (based on the idea of Sándor Garamvölgyi).
The Silvertooth experiment can demonstrate what Michelson could not
Ernest Silvertooth was able to detect the Earth's speed through space using a one-way interferometer.(6) He split the laser beam into two in a Y shape, directed the light beams towards each other, and passed a detector along the light beams traveling in the opposite direction. The nodes moved depending on the orientation of the instrument. He observed that the Earth was speeding towards the constellation Leo at a speed of 380 km/s, which is in good agreement with the COBE CMBR results.
Doug Marett's rebuttal
Marett supposedly repeated the Silvertooth experiment, but this is not true, because he did not repeat it.(7) He did something different. His device was not rotatable, so he introduced the errors attributed to Silvertooth into his own experiment, since he had to wait for the Earth to rotate under his device. In this way, he created additional possibilities for error, which he measured.
The Silvertooth device was rotatable, so it was not subject to additional errors caused by daily cycles.
The historical smearing of the Hafele Keating experiment
The Hafele experiment was a deliberate deception, the Cs clocks were bad, or rather not good enough for transport. Except for one, clock number 447 (out of 4) which worked relatively stably, but it did not show a relativistic jump, and its relatively better result was averaged until the desired result was obtained. The clocks were synchronized to each other fifteen times during the breaks between flights, thus achieving the desired result.(8) The experiment was not repeated, they did something else. The subsequent experiments did not even come close to the composition of the HK experiment with the assumptiont hat the newer clocks were more accurate. In the lab. No pre- and afterlife registrations, only shorter trips and very small time differences. And GPS clock has not yet been brought back.
The muons
It is widely accepted that muons produced in the stratosphere by cosmic rays could not reach the Earth's surface without their lifetimes being extended. This is indeed the case, they do not.
The majority of cosmic rays produce muons in the stratosphere, but a smaller portion reaches much lower. However, no muon has a path length of 600 meters, because this is an average value. A smaller portion of them can travel much longer distances and these muon particles reach the earth's surface, which are counted by ground detectors. This does not require any time dilation concept.
At the atomic level, matter has a torus structure. It is made up of smaller proton toruses and electron toruses with a diameter of three times that of the proton. There are no quark inside neutrons,(9) a neutron is actually a proton torus inside an electron torus. In the case of a free neutron, this stability means a half-life of 10 minutes, while in the nucleus the bound electron is already orbiting between two protons, and thus the neighboring protons direct it, and the electron does not fall off anymore, at least in stable isotopes. In all cases, the toroids represent an elementary electric charge orbiting around a graviton backbone, so the proton and the electron have a similar structure.
The emergence of the mass property and the development of the spin property
Mass does not exist independently, but arises from the circular motion of the massless elementary energy particle graviton and the elementary electric charge associated with it, orbiting in a closed torus. The kinetic energy of the orbiting particles creates the inertia that we perceive as mass. It does not require the Higgs boson, which has already been 'almost' found. But it has not been found.
The property of spin naturally originates from the orbital path. The two types of spin arise from the orientation of the electric charge orbiting the graviton backbone in the torus, which can be right-handed or left-handed.
Dark matter is composed of molecular hydrogen.
Molecular hydrogen cannot be seen with ground-based telescopes because its weak IR lines are absorbed by the layer of air. Mapping the material content of the Universe has therefore been done by accounting for visible amounts of matter. The hydrogen content was examined at 21 cm, which is characteristic of atomic hydrogen, and thus large amounts of gravitationally interacting matter were naturally absent.
However, using an IR spectroscope sent into space, molecular hydrogen, amounting to ten times that of atomic hydrogen, has been observed namely in the spiral galaxy NGC 891,(10) which is facing us edge-on. Further confirming studies may be necessary, obviously with the Webb telescope.
The nucleus does not contain real neutrons.
a
b
Figure 3a. The B17 nucleus in side view: blue toruses: protons, red toruses: binding electrons. Metastable configuration, half-life 5 milliseconds.
Figure 3b. The state of the B17 nucleus before decay: on the left, an electron (red torus) is excluded to the nuclear edge, which is immediately pushed down by the other electrons. This makes it an electron emitter.
Bonding electrons between protons ensure stability. The shell electrons do not orbit the nucleus, but occupy fixed energy valleys. Stable nucleon structures are organized in a plane on axes perpendicular to the plane from proton and electron toruses. The toruses are not the particles themselves, but only the surface traveled by the constituent electric particles around the graviton backbone. The particle pair orbits at the speed of light.
The origin of the strong interaction and the shielding of protons in the atomic nucleus
There is no special strong interaction in the atomic nucleus, the strong bond is provided by the binding electrons located in close proximity, since the proton toruses are located inside the electron toruses, which are about three times their diameter. Therefore, the force thought to be the strong interaction is simply electromagnetic interaction and the close proximity of the proton-electron toruses causes the strength of the bond.
Since the protons are located inside the relatively large electron toruses, the electrons shield the positive electric charge of the protons. So the shell electrons are unable to approach the nucleus and therefore the electron shell does not collapse into the atomic nucleus. In spite of very rare cases of capturing K electrons, the electron capture of electron-deficient isotopes occurs from a photon of the appropriate frequency by pair production, since the photon can easily approach the atomic nucleus. This is why there are so many positron-emitting isotopes, because the unused positron is emitted by the isotope.
Quarks do not exist.
The figure below shows the experimentally determined charge distribution of the proton and neutron as a function of the distance from the center of the particle.(9)
Figure 4. From the charge density distribution, it can be seen that the neutron contains a proton and an electron torus, and no quarks. The charge density of the proton torus is about 0.2 fm, corresponding even to the radius of the neutron torus of 0.2 fm, while the negative charge density of the neutron (= core electron) is 0.6 fm, about three times the radius of the proton torus, i.e. the diameter of the electron torus is about three times the diameter of the proton torus.
In the neutron, a negatively charged region can be detected about 0.6 fm from the center, which is difficult to match with the 2 negatively charged quarks. However, in the proton, there is no trace of a negatively charged particle. Consequently, the quark model is unviable.
In contrast, the negative charge density at 0.6 fm corresponds to a core electron torus with a diameter about three times that of the positive charge density maximum located about 0.2 fm from the proton center, which corresponds to the proton torus.
Protons
There are no charges in the center of the proton, the proton is empty, there are no quarks there, neither up quarks nor down quarks, because the proton is a torus.
• The proton does not have the negatively charged quark. The quark model is an obvious mistake.
• The positive charge is located at a distance of 0.2 fm from the center, because the proton is a torus.
• The negatively charged quark should be located 0.2 fm from the center, if it existed. But it doesn't.
Neutrons
There are no charges in the center of the neutron, the center is empty, there is nothing there, neither up quarks nor down quarks, because the neutron is two pieces of torus.
• The positive charge is located 0.2 fm from the center, because it is a proton torus.
• The negatively charged quark should be located 0.2 fm from the center, if it existed. But it doesn't.
• In contrast, the neutron contains a negatively charged particle at 0.6 fm, which is an electron torus.
• From the charge density distribution, it looks like the neutron has a proton and an electron torus, and no quarks.
According to the compressive gravity model, gravity can be decomposed into two different effects and only one of them weakens quadratically. The quadratic weakening takes into account the decrease in the viewing angle. However, the obscured part of the graviton radiation is absent tubularly even beyond the Universe, so the gravitational effect remains significant even on galactic scales. The concept of gravitational radiation coming from infinity can also replace the erroneous dark energy hypothesis, but this does not accelerate the expansion of the Universe, but slows it down.
The shadowing of gravity and Loránd Eötvös's error
According to the compressive gravity model, gravity can not only be measured, but also shielded if a body gets behind another body, which blocks a small portion of the graviton radiation. This is in contrast to the relativistic view that gravity can be interpreted as a distortion and does not consider shielding to be realistic.
The shadowing experiments of Loránd Eötvös(11) must be reinterpreted in the light of the above. Eötvös started from the assumption of attractive gravity in his shadowing experiment with a torsion pendulum and lead (Pb) quadrants. He assumed that attractive gravity interacts only with the lower quadrants, so he ignored the upper quadrant - which was necessary for equilibrium - in his experiments. However, if gravity is not attractive but compressive, he could not have ignored the upper lead quadrants to determine the shadowing effect.
This means that Eötvös' experiment was not sensitive to the compressive gravity theory, and thus his experiment with lead quadrants was not suitable for ruling out pushing gravity. However, he did rule out attractive gravity at least.
The shadowing of gravity can be observed during solar eclipses(12, 13, 14).
Spacetime is actually just a system of equations, it does not exist in nature.
In the Gravity Probe(15) experiment, spherical objects spun at high speed were unable to detect changes in spacetime because spacetime does not exist.
The experiment could have detected changes in the gradient of gravitational radiation, which is a physically existing effect. So the misinterpretation of the experiment did not prove the existence of spacetime, but was just another example of the compliance coercion.
The experiment itself was well-designed and functional, but it had nothing to do with non-existent space-time.
Neutrinos, as elementary pairs of electric particles, can participate in the formation of more complex particles or radiation. It is possible that the photon is re-formed by the encounter of graviton radiation and a neutrino pair, but the exact mechanism is not yet known.
This model offers a simpler, more coherent and physically more intuitive alternative to the structure of the Universe. The concepts of compressive gravity, torus-based particle structure, and cyclic universe offer solutions to many current theoretical problems (e.g. singularity, dark energy, antimatter) in a new way. In the future, it may also be necessary to find ways to experimentally test the model.
• The proposed interpretation of gravity provides a solution to how the gravitational force, considered to be about 30 orders of magnitude weaker than the EM force, holds galaxies and galaxy clusters together even at distances of hundreds or thousands of millions of light years.
• Debris formed by the explosion of the primordial neutron star may explain the maturity of galaxies seen at the 'edge' of the Universe.
• It replaces manipulation with non-existent space-time.
• It replaces the absurd and unnatural concept of singularity and creation from nothing.
• It offers a trivial explanation for why the electron shell does not collapse into the atomic nucleus.
• The model replaces the non-existent gluons, quarks, and 1/3 elementary electric charges as well.
• Provides a simple explanation of how an atomic nucleus can emit electrons when it contains no electrons.
• Why does a neutron decay into a proton and an electron?
• Why is the labile neutron stable within the nucleus?
• How can a photon produce a positron and an electron if it does not contain them?
• What makes photons capable of creating a laser beam?
• The model provides a trivial explanation for the appearance of the mass property and thus replace the erroneous Higgs hypothesis.
• Provides a clear explanation for the appearance of the spin property.
• The model decides the question of whether the photon is a particle or a wave.
(1). The structure of the photon http://astrojan.nhely.hu/foton.htm
(2). Spinons and Holons https://www2.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/ALS-spinons-holons.html
(3). Péter Béni, The Tau Force http://astrojan.nhely.hu/tau.htm
(4). Pound and Rebka experiment https://journals.aps.org/prl/pdf/10.1103/PhysRevLett.3.439
(5). Hector Munera http://astrojan.nhely.hu/munera.pdf
(6). Ernest Silvertooth's one-way interferometer http://astrojan.nhely.hu/silverth.htm
(7). Doug Marett, Critique of the Silvertooth Experiment, https://web.archive.org/web/20150415182054/https://conspiracyoflight.com/Silvertooth/Silvertooth.html
(8). Critique of Hafele Keating's experiment, AG Kelly https://www.cartesio-episteme.net/H\&KPaper.htm
(9). There are no quarks, Norman D. Cook, Fig. 6.2, p131. https://drive.google.com/file/d/1E\_dQHeQRUPHkJ-CtEwKwgGhzic5x1xzL/view?usp=sharing
(10). Edwin A. Valentijn & Paul P. van der Werf, First extragalactic direct detection of large scale molecular hydrogen in the disk of NGC 891, https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1086/312208/pdf
(11). Loránd Eötvös' gravity shielding experiment with lead quadrants, https://web.archive.org/web/20120321155318/http://www.sulinet.hu/eletestudomany/archiv/1998/9850/gravitacio/gravit.html
(12). Endre Magyari, Gravitational shadowing experiment (1961) http://astrojan.nhely.hu/laki.htm
(13). Wang eclipse, Gravity anomaly (1997) https://web.archive.org/web/20061009140254/http://www.eclipse2006.boun.edu.tr/sss/paper02.pdf
(14). Allais effect, Gravity anomaly (1954) https://web.archive.org/web/20120122100506/http://www.allais.info/alltrans/nasareport.pdf
(15). Gravity Probe experiment https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_Probe_B
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To be continued.. ☯
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* A fénysebesség NEM állandó. A fény sebességét mi mindig kizárólag vízszintes
irányban forgó tükörrendszerekkel mérjük a szükséges pontossággal. A Pound és Rebka kisérlet bizonyítja a
Föld felé eső fény sebességének növekedését (+ 7.36 x 10-7 m/s, = 2.5 x 10-15 c / 22.5 méter).
**
Models of the Atomic Nucleus: Kvarkok nem léteznek.
Analysis of Same-Atomic-Weight Isotopes: Neutronok nem léteznek.
Neutron
*** A COBE mérései megerősítik a 371 km/s száguldást Leo/Crater csillagkép irányában.
**** Electric forces may bind nucleus.
